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Mesopotamia
Situated between the Tigris and the Euphrates – from present-day Syria to Kuwait – Mesopotamia is believed to have been humanity’s first known civilisation, more than 4,000 years ago.
The Mesopotamians, a cultured and refined people, attached great importance to their deities, associating specific fragrances with each one.
These perfumes were made using tiger nut oil or linseed oil, seeds, resins (such as myrrh) and precious woods, aromatic herbs (such as oleander) and flowers (such as violet, lotus, rose, iris, saffron and marjoram). They served as offerings to the gods, remedies and luxury goods.
In 2022, Turkish researchers discovered perfume recipes engraved on cuneiform clay tablets in a temple in the city of Assur. They are believed to have been devised by Tapputi, a female perfumer at the Assyrian court who is thought to have lived around 1200 BC. These texts reveal a technique that was already highly developed and prove that the profession was entirely mixed-gender.
Egypt
A mystical land that the alchemists of antiquity dubbed ‘the black land’ in reference to the fertile silt of the Nile, Pharaonic Egypt is particularly associated with perfume, which originated in its temples and was crafted by priest-perfumers.
At that time, perfume was mainly prepared from fatty substances mixed with fragrant resins, spices, plants and aromatic herbs, sometimes with the addition of palm wine. Many of the raw materials were imported and therefore rare, reserved for a certain elite or for the ‘fragrant’ gods, for whom nothing was ever too precious.
The Temple of Horus, situated in what is now the town of Edfu, stands as a testament in itself to nearly 20 centuries of perfume recipes, which were carved into its stones and bas-reliefs by several generations of priest-perfumers.
Among them is the formula for an iconic fragrance from Ancient Egypt, created over 3,500 years ago: Kyphi. The Egyptians used it in solid form, burning it like incense at dusk to ‘lull people to sleep, inspire pleasant dreams and banish the worries of the day’, wrote the Greek philosopher Plutarch, who revealed the ‘recipe’: myrrh, frankincense, mastic, cinnamon, broom, honey, palm wine… It is said that its fragrance soothed the spirits as much as it healed the ailments of the soul.
The pharmacopoeia of Ancient Egypt already listed more than 700 plants, including the blue lotus, a symbol of ‘birth and rebirth’ and the emblem of the god Nefertoum, the ‘deity of pleasant scent’. All the Egyptian gods were perfumed, thus distinguishing them from ‘mere mortals’.
The reason the Egyptians attached such importance to embalming bodies with fragrant aromatic substances was that this ritual practice illustrated mankind’s desire to draw closer to the ‘fragrant gods’ and, in turn, to become immortal in order to attain eternal life.
The funeral ritual of mummification in Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians believed in immortality. The journey to the afterlife was marked by a ritual lasting at least 70 days.
On the mummification table, a body that has been dried and coated with resins, oils, ointments and beeswax is wrapped in linen strips in the presence of an embalmer-priest wearing the jackal-headed mask of Anubis and a priest reciting the ritual formulas inscribed on a papyrus.
Next to them, a casket contains four vases known as canopic jars, intended to hold the embalmed internal organs of the deceased. These canopic jars represent the four sons of Horus: Hapi, Kebehsenuf, Amset and Duamutef.
Reproduction of a scented cone designed to perfume the hair
Made from a mixture of oils, resins, fats and myrrh, these scented cones were worn on wigs or directly on the shaved head. They melted slowly under the effect of body heat, releasing their fragrance.
Although often depicted in paintings and bas-reliefs of the period, their existence has not, however, been proven with certainty.
Natural haematite
It was used in the form of a ground red pigment in cosmetic formulations in antiquity.
Whilst Pliny the Elder mentioned its existence as early as 77, scientists from Tehran and Padua discovered in 2024, on Iranian soil, a Jiroft chlorite vial containing the oldest lipstick known to date, in the form of a ‘lip paint’, whose recipe, used 3,600 years ago, consisted mainly of haematite.
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Romulus and Remus
According to legend, two brothers, Romulus and Remus, abandoned by their parents, were taken in and nursed by a she-wolf. When they reached adulthood, they decided to found a city. Romulus took his place on the Capitoline Hill, Remus on the Aventine Hill. The first to spot a flock of birds would give his name to the city. Remus was the first to see six birds. Immediately afterwards, Romulus saw twelve and declared himself the winner.
Whilst he was marking out the boundaries of the future city with a plough, his brother, to mock him, leapt over the furrow in a single bound.
In a fit of rage, Romulus killed him.
Romulus became the first king of Rome.
The legendary founding of Rome is said to have taken place in the year 753 BC.
*Pompéia* by L. T. PIVER, created in 1907 by Jacques BOUCHÉ and Georges DARZENS – a chemist who developed the glycidic synthesis of aldehydes – refers to the eruption of Vesuvius in the year 79, which claimed more than 3,000 lives in the Italian towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Excavated since 1748, the ruins of the ancient city of Pompeii were opened to the public in 1874 as an open-air museum, whose archaeological finds depict the daily life of its inhabitants.
This fragrance evokes the rich history and culture of ancient Rome.
The Renaissance was a period of artistic, scientific and political renewal that spanned from the end of the Middle Ages (14th century) to the beginning of the Modern Era (16th century). It was marked by discoveries that would change the world: Gutenberg invented the printing press, Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas, Nicolaus Copernicus first proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system, and Francis I declared French to be the sole language to be used in legal and administrative documents.
This period also saw the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacres, which claimed more than 30,000 lives, and, finally, the promulgation of the Edict of Nantes, by which Henry IV granted freedom of worship to his subjects.
An artistic movement emerged in Italy in the 15th century and subsequently spread throughout Europe: Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo and Titian were among the Italian painters and artists who went on to create the countless masterpieces that we still admire today.
At court, the festivities were splendid and extravagant, combining theatre, poetry and music.
Doctorwearing
A full-length portrait of a plague doctorwearing a long black tunic, a wide-brimmed hat, boots, gloves, a wooden rod for examining plague victims, and a mask shaped like a bird’s beak, covered with protective spectacles.
The mandrake
The mandrake was the subject of many legends in the Middle Ages.
Witches used its hallucinogenic and narcotic properties to induce a trance.
Another belief held that anyone who hears the terrifying scream emitted by the plant when it is pulled from the ground may go mad and risk death. It was recommended to plug one’s ears with wax, tie the plant to a dog and lure the animal away. The curse would then fall upon the animal rather than the person who pulled it up.
The pomander
The pomander, also known as an amber apple or scented apple, first appeared in the early 12th century. Containing a piece of ambergris, civet or musk, this small round case, worn on the belt, was initially renowned for its aphrodisiac properties.
The mixtures it contained came to be used for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes during the plague and cholera epidemics that ravaged the Middle Ages.
During the Renaissance, the pomander evolved into a piece of jewellery made of gold, silver or vermeil, inlaid with pearls, enamels or precious stones. Fitted with a stand, it could also be placed on a dressing table. Its compartments contained pastes and ointments with different fragrances.
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The Age of Enlightenment is a term used to describe the 18th century, during which philosophers sought to ‘enlighten’ people’s minds, opening them up to reason, knowledge and rationalism, and to combat superstition and obscurantism.
This century saw the publication of Diderot and d’Alembert’s famous 28-volume encyclopaedia, which was open to all forms of knowledge.
Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, Beaumarchais, Rousseau and d’Alembert were among the most influential philosophers.
Women are, of course, under-represented in this school of thought. Special mention, however, must be made of Émilie du Châtelet, one of the few women known and recognised for her expertise in literature, music and, above all, mathematics, physics and astronomy. Among other things, she is credited with a translation of Isaac Newton’s *Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy*, written in Latin, as well as a 139-page *Dissertation on the Nature and Propagation of Fire*, which was published in 1739.
Dividing her time between the court of Versailles and the Château de Lunéville, the residence of Stanislas Leszczynski, she spent part of her life at the Château de Cirey-sur-Blaise, in Haute-Marne, where Voltaire stayed with her. In her small theatre set up in the attic, plays written by Voltaire were performed for the staff or guests.
In politics, the Enlightenment thinkers (as the philosophers were then known) advocated the separation of powers within the state and introduced the idea of democracy, thereby challenging the authority of kings.
And in 1789, France was to experience the Revolution…
In response to the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which she considered unsuitable for women, Olympe de Gouges, a writer who championed gender equality, published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in 1791. Imprisoned for her ideas and writings, she was guillotined in 1793.
Against this turbulent backdrop, the mid-18th century marked the transition from strong perfumes – intended to mask poor hygiene – to more delicate fragrances. Refinement was the order of the day at the Court of Versailles, which came to be known as the ‘Perfumed Court’ during the reign of Louis XV. France saw the arrival of Eau de Cologne from Germany, the expansion of flower cultivation and the perfume industry in Grasse, and the growth of the Parisian trade in perfumed products: soaps, pot-pourris, cosmetics and toilet vinegars with invigorating properties.
This period also saw the birth of the great perfume houses: Jean-Louis Fargeon, Oriza, Pierre-François Lubin, Jean-François Houbigant, and ‘À la Reine des Fleurs’, which would later become the house of L. T. Piver…
Toilet vinegar
‘Toilet vinegar, used for cosmetic and sanitary purposes, is far more effective and has a fresher, more pleasant scent than colognes, without the irritating properties found in the latter. It prevents and alleviates facial redness and refreshes the skin, restoring its natural radiance and velvety softness. It soothes razor burn. Its toning and refreshing properties make it particularly sought after for ladies’ toiletries. Used in the bath, it strengthens and relaxes the muscles, leaving the body with a pleasant scent. It is a powerful safeguard against epidemics and purifies stale air in homes, etc., etc.” J. STERN & Co – Berlin – Germany
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The F. MILLOT perfumery
Founded in 1860 by Félix MILLOT, whose grandparents were originally from Lorraine, the F. MILLOT perfumery opened its doors on Rue du Faubourg Saint-Martin, in a bustling district of Paris.
Following the death of her husband in 1873, Louise MILLOT ran the business and its forty or so workers with a masterful hand. She turned it into one of the most prosperous businesses of the era.
The company remained a family business for over 100 years, enjoying an undiminished international reputation
Victor VAISSIER
In 1881, Victor VAISSIER took over the Savonnerie des Nations in Roubaix, a family business to which he gave an international dimension.
In 1883, he renamed his company Savonnerie du Congo, in reference to the explorations carried out in the Congo by neighbouring Belgium.
Like all his peers, he sold colognes, perfumes and cosmetics in addition to the soaps that had made his fortune.
Inspired by Jean-Marie Farina’s eau de cologne and its roll-on bottle – which Emperor Napoleon I used to slip into his boots – Victor Vaissier had bottles of the same design manufactured for his own Eau de Cologne
Powder flask made of boiled cardboard - Napoleon III period
Based in Forbach since 1853, the ADT family has been manufacturing objects from recycled paper, or ‘papier mâché’, using methods practised in China as early as the 18th century and following the economic model of French social Catholicism.
Following the annexation of Alsace by Germany in 1870, the family moved to Pont-à-Mousson, in Meurthe-et-Moselle.
The town’s museum exhibits magnificent items from the ADT workshop, including powder boxes, glove boxes, moustache brushes and other toiletries.
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Art Nouveau
Born in the late 19th century, ART NOUVEAU is an artistic movement that emerged in reaction to the ornate styles of furniture from previous centuries and to Haussmannian architecture. Nature became the source of inspiration, with its curved forms, refined and harmonious motifs, and references to flora and fauna. Art Nouveau entered the daily lives of modern people at the dawn of the 20th century. This marked the advent of the Guimard style and the École de Nancy.
It is, of course, found in modern perfumery. The bottles take the form of more or less irregularly shaped vases, and the labels feature a variety of floral designs and shimmering colors.
The grand finale was the 1900 World’s Fair held in Paris: Hector Guimard, who had just designed the entrance kiosks for the Paris Metro, was commissioned by Parfumerie F. MILLOT to design its booth—including furniture and decor—as well as the bottles and cases for its new fragrances: Kantirix, Violi-Violette, Primalis, and its Eau de Cologne Ambrée, created a few years earlier. The House of F. Millot was awarded a gold medal.
This style, also derisively referred to as the “noodle style” by its detractors, would gradually evolve around 1910 toward more symmetrical and linear forms, giving rise to Art Deco a few years later.
5 – « La Rose Jacqueminot », one of the first single-note fragrances, is said to have achieved success after its creator, François COTY – fed up with department stores refusing to stock his new creation – deliberately smashed a bottle on the counter at the Magasins du Louvre. The female customers present, won over by the scent, are said to have snapped up the entire stock in a matter of moments. Whilst the manoeuvre may seem daring, the possible presence of his wife amongst the customers is said to have greatly facilitated its success…
The 1920s
In the 1920s, the rise of hedonism, leisure activities and outdoor sports meant that a tan – which had been so disparaged since ancient times – became a sign of a certain social status that people were proud to display. The women’s liberation movement set bodies and minds free. A woman who tans is an active, sporty woman. But the sun is known to pose certain risks. It is therefore essential to protect oneself from it.
In 1927, Jean PATOU launched his ‘Huile de Chaldée’. In 1935, Eugène SCHUELLER tested his ‘Ambre Solaire’, which went on to enjoy immense success thanks to the introduction of paid holidays in 1936 and well-executed advertising campaigns.
Following in their footsteps, numerous brands began producing their own tanning oils, all claiming protective properties that were reinforced by extensive advertising.
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Ernest BEAUX
Ernest BEAUX (1881, Moscow – 1961, Paris) learnt the trade of perfumer and soap-maker at the RALLET company, which had been founded by his father and was based in Russia. After training as a chemist, he returned to France to complete his apprenticeship as a perfumer.
Nicknamed the ‘Minister of the Nose’, he created No. 5 for CHANEL in 1921. This was followed by No. 22 in 1922, Cuir de Russie in 1924, Gardénia in 1925 and Bois des Îles in 1926.
At the same time, he was appointed as a consultant to the BOURJOIS company.
He was responsible for the famous *Soir de Paris* in 1928 and *Kobako* eight years later.
6 - Russian Leather
According to legend, Russian leather is said to have originated when a Cossack rubbed his boots with birch bark, making them waterproof and giving them a reddish-brown colour.
In the RORET Bookbinder’s Manual, published in 1907, the following recipe is given: For the tanning agent, willow, pine or birch bark is used, or a mixture of these three types of bark. As for its characteristic scent, this is imparted by impregnating the flesh side with an empyreumatic* oil derived from the distillation of birch bark. This oil, commonly known as Russian oil, owes its aromatic properties to a specific compound known as betulin.
Russian leather delights perfumers, who create a variety of rather masculine versions of it for leading houses such as Rimmel, 4711, Volnay, Godet, Lubin, Guerlain, Houbigant, Coudray, Rigaud, Violet, Bienaime, Bertelli, Agnel, L. T. Piver, Floris, Molinard, Mury, Roger & Gallet…
*empireumatique: refers to a family of aromas evoking scents of smoke, roasting or something burnt
Roaring Twenties
During the Roaring Twenties, cigarettes took on a feminine character.
Jacques CHAMBERRY created an oriental fragrance to scent the tobacco of ladies who were, little by little, gaining their independence. Bourjois even featured its famous Soir de Paris fragrance on matchboxes.
Tabac Blond, composed by Ernest DALTROFF in 1919 for CARON, was a huge success.
LUBIN launched ‘Fumée’ in 1934, an oriental fragrance for both men and women, presented in a cigarette-shaped bottle.
‘Snuff’ by Elsa SCHIAPARELLI was created for men in 1939.
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Amber Eau de Cologne ‘À l’Idéal’
1915
On the back of the bottle, a label states: ‘Please return this empty bottle to us; we will buy it back at its full value’.
The label is signed by B. Sirven, a printer in Toulouse.
During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the workers at the Sirven printing works, under the management of Joseph and his brother Bernard, published war dispatches to provide news from the front to the soldiers’ wives. This marked the birth of the newspaper ‘La Dépêche du Midi’.
Flambeau by LUBIN (1940–45)
The label features a torch from which the French flag emerges, alongside a laurel branch symbolising glory, honour and triumph. A black band runs across the bottom of the label as a sign of mourning, in tribute to the soldiers who fell at the front.
Mr Gilles THEVENIN, director of LUBIN, was able to share his account with us. Emile GEOLIER, director of the Courbevoie (92) factory during the Occupation, restarted small-scale production using whatever raw materials remained, to prevent the Germans from seizing the factory, and with the family’s permission and the help of the staff still present.
As a result, the fragrances ‘Flambeau’ and ‘Ferveur’ – two ‘patriotic’ fragrances in the colours of the French flag – were sold in very small quantities.
Heliotrope by F. Millot
A perfume for handkerchiefs scented with white heliotrope by F. MILLOT and the book *Melpomène se parfume à l’Héliotrope* by Michel Roger AUGEARD, subtitled *‘This is London… Daily life in the Resistance as revealed through personal messages’* during the Second World War.
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8 – Wars
Difficulties relating to the supply of raw materials for perfumes, as well as glass and cardboard for containers and packaging, were a recurring feature throughout all periods of war. On every box, bottle and poster, customers were asked to return the packaging for recycling and to present their ration cards for soap, shaving cream and all toiletries.
Perfumers are informing their customers of shortages, restrictions and new taxes on invoices. Glassmakers are calling for the ‘right materials’ to manufacture the bottles.
But the prospects for peace remain. Care is taken of soldiers, whether prisoners of war or on the front line, with the Hygienic Soap created especially for the Allied Forces by Orsay, and the antiseptic and hygienic products from Bon Secours by the F. Millot perfumery, which ‘are invaluable to the combatants’, as the magazine ‘La Parfumerie Moderne’ states in its issue no. 4 of 1916.
The perfumes are called Victoire, Liberté, Le Vainqueur, Eau de Cologne Tricolore, Douce France and Flambeau; the labels feature the national flag, the bust of Marianne and the Cross of Lorraine, whilst the adverts are awash with blue, white and red.
The Hippie Movement
Originating in San Francisco in the late 1960s, the Hippie Movement spread throughout Europe. Its slogans were very explicit: ‘Make love, not war’, ‘Down with consumer society’, ‘Love one another’, encouraging sexual freedom and an awareness of the body, mind and senses.
In perfumery, two major trends emerged: fragrances based on patchouli oil and eaux fraîches, both of which – despite being very different – evoked a sense of freedom and naturalness.
The scent of patchouli fills the streets, but many upmarket brands are reluctant to embrace it, not wanting to be associated with the image conjured up by the hippies. Some choose to market perfumes without patchouli or formulas containing it, but above all without making a big deal of it! This is the case with Ô by LANCÔME, created in 1969 by Robert GONNON and described by the brand as an ‘eau fraîche’. This women’s fragrance, structured around citrus and aromatic notes on a chypre base, is above all a perfume in which patchouli essence is present, blended with vetiver essence – which was considered ‘masculine’ at the time.
This was also the case with Eau de Rochas in 1970, created by Nicolas MAMOUNAS. Originally named Eau de roche, it was very quickly renamed Eau de Rochas by the brand after it learnt that ‘eau de roche’ meant ‘petrol’ in Middle Eastern countries.
That same year, RÉMINISCENCE chose to make its mark with Patchouli, one of the most iconic fragrances of its kind. In 1971, CLINIQUE launched Aromatics Elixir, in which patchouli essence also features prominently.
The spirit of that era went on to inspire other brands: KENZO, KESLING, ÉTAT LIBRE D’ORANGE…
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Men’s perfume
The concept of men’s perfume is relatively recent. It really came into its own in 1889 when Aimé Guerlain created Jicky. Men’s perfumery thus began to emerge tentatively at the start of the 20th century.
It was in the 1930s that this trend began to emerge, with CARON’s ‘Pour un homme’ fragrance, for example. However, to appeal to men who did not wear much perfume – as they regarded it as a feminine attribute – the perfume industry developed aromatic and lavender-scented fragrances for them, reminiscent of the aftershave ritual.
In the late 1950s, aftershave was paired with its own eau de toilette and, at times, with soap and shaving foam in the same fragrance, always featuring scent notes that evoked hygiene and cleanliness, such as Jean PATOU’s Monsieur NET, composed by the perfumer Henri GIBOULET. Men were also keen on vetiver essence, and many frequented the first large retail chains, which stocked brands and products that would go on to become cult favourites: H pour Homme, Williams, Gillette, Mennen…
From the very late 1960s through the 1970s and into the 1980s, men’s perfumery evolved: men became increasingly open to fragrances that stood out from the ordinary and were either evocative of freshness or particularly potent, thereby showcasing their masculinity: Brut, Grey Flannel, Azzaro pour Homme, Jules, Kouros, Drakkar Noir, Bel Ami, Xeryus, Fahrenheit, Jazz, Tsar…
Eau Sauvage by DIOR
An original lithograph featuring the comic-book character Corto Maltese, a mysterious seafaring adventurer created by the artist Hugo Pratt, who for a time became one of DIOR’s two ‘muses’ alongside ‘Largo Winch’, another comic-book character, for the Eau Sauvage eau de toilette.
Drawing by Hugo PRATT
Presented by Christian DIOR to perfume sales advisers in a special edition of ‘La lettre du Cercle Dior’ (2001). Numbered print (No. 3909/7000).
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1970 to 2000
In the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, perfume marketing diversified and, in a bid to push the boundaries even further, focused on fragrances aimed at a new audience: young women.
Available at very affordable prices in supermarkets and hypermarkets, young women could discover various versions of the ‘Eau Jeune’ range, including ‘L’Orientale’, with its famous black bottle and rust-coloured cap. Also available were fragrances such as Gloria VANDERBILT and Ambre Libertine, as well as deodorants that had been rebranded as perfumes and marketed as such by the brands: Impulse, Sintony…
Later on, ‘Maroussia’ by the Russian fashion designer Slava ZAÏTSEV went on to enjoy great success, as did the fragrances from the ready-to-wear brand NAF-NAF.
In upmarket perfumeries, it was the CACHAREL fragrances that became the symbols of an entire generation, from Anaïs-Anaïs to Loulou, then from Eden to Noa: particularly original fragrances offering truly innovative scent experiences…
The 1970s and 80s: Women's Emancipation
The 1970s marked the era of women’s liberation. The pill was now ‘legal’, and in 1973, feminists marched in protest, burning their bras. L’ORÉAL echoed this movement by devising a revolutionary and powerful slogan: ‘Because I’m worth it’.
That same year in the USA, REVLON launched ‘Charlie’, a perfume whose marketing concept portrayed the emancipated woman: buying her own perfume, wearing a trouser suit and fighting for her rights. A real first. In the 1980s, the brand launched an advertising campaign in which a woman, seen from behind, spontaneously placed her hand on a man’s bottom to demonstrate her dominance! Also in 1973, following the death of perfumer Jean DESPREZ (great-grandson of the founder of the F. MILLOT perfumery), his daughter, Marie-Céline DESPREZ-GRENIER, created Jardanel, an ode to femininity. Yet, at that time, the profession of perfumer was still decidedly male-dominated…
In 1976, FABERGÉ launched Babe, a fragrance associated with the model Margaux HEMINGWAY, the granddaughter of the writer Ernest HEMINGWAY. A fragrance for the modern, ‘fresh’ and ‘natural’ woman-child.
The 1970s saw the emergence of iconic fragrances such as Yves SAINT-LAURENT’s Rive Gauche for women, an aldehydic floral ‘not for the faint-hearted’. It was presented as a ‘hymn to the free, independent, intellectual, modern and sexy woman’ in its bright blue, metallic cylindrical bottle, inspired by masculine lines that women had embraced!
The 1980s were a time when women were constantly portrayed as breaking free from traditional roles, brilliantly balancing their private and professional lives. The shoulder-padded suits they wore gave them a masculine build: this was the era of the ‘Working Girl’.
Perfumes followed suit. For the launch of its Darling fragrance, FABERGÉ playfully had men speak… who couldn’t find the words to compliment their wives’ perfume.
These same years also saw the emergence of perfumes with rich, complex and powerful formulas that accompanied this transformation of women, such as Poison by Christian DIOR, created by Edouard FLÉCHIER in 1985. Narcotic, sublime and deliberately heady, it sold one bottle every 50 seconds in France during the first 12 days following its launch. But in the US, some restaurants in New York even posted signs on their doors for the attention of their female customers: ‘No smoking and no wearing POISON’ – such was the extent to which its exceptional ‘olfactory aura’ could both seduce and cause discomfort…
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The 1990s to the 2000s
A fragrance reflects the era in which it is created. It embodies everything that characterises a society, from its values and beliefs to its aspirations and concerns. The 1990s were marked by the development of new technologies (the internet, video games, mobile phones, etc.), but also, and more profoundly, by dramatic events: the Gulf War and the spread of AIDS. A sense of unease crept in insidiously: existential stress, a refusal to grow old, fear of the future; people spoke of pollution and overconsumption.
Perfume, as we know, follows societal shifts. Brands therefore drive the market forward. The perfumer adapts their work accordingly.
Two categories of perfume are becoming trendy: those that are fresh, clean, natural, transparent, pure and minimalist, and those composed of synthetic musks that evoke softness, cosiness and comfort: consumers are ‘reassured’ to help them ‘cope’ with their ‘problems’. When ‘everything is going wrong’, it is not uncommon to ‘compensate’ with food, especially sweet treats. The 1990s therefore saw the emergence of a new olfactory family in perfumery: ‘gourmand’ fragrances. Thierry Mugler’s Angel led the way in 1992.
The 1990s were also the era of the ‘mass market’. The aim was to appeal to as many people as possible. And the perfume industry was no exception to this trend. To cut costs, brands turned to consumer panels to test and approve fragrances before they went on sale. If the fragrances failed to win over the ‘testers’, brands no longer took the risk of launching them and instead opted to offer ‘flankers’ – variations on their biggest hits – because, in a consumer-driven society, customers are always on the lookout for something new. And it works! Since the 2000s, flankers have literally flooded the market, whilst certain fragrances have been discontinued, much to the dismay of disappointed customers.
The 1990s were also characterised by a quest for ever more intricately crafted bottles – technical feats of glassmaking – which brands surrounded with anecdotes much appreciated by their clientele, such as the bottle for DIOR’s J’adore perfume, whose cap, with its gold-rimmed collar, is reminiscent of the necklaces worn by the ‘giraffe women’ of Burma and Maasai necklaces. ESCADA offered summer variations of its iconic bottle, always in limited quantities; Jean-Paul GAULTIER released a corset-shaped bottle for women and a sailor-shirt-style bottle for men, inspired by his favourite couturier’s wardrobe, presented in a tin can, as well as a snow globe-shaped bottle for Fragile, whose packaging evoked a removal box. LOLITA LEMPICKA is launching a perfume of the same name, with a dreamlike world inspired by Eve and the Fall…
The new millennium began in the world of perfumery with a creation that blends abstraction and poetry: Flower by KENZO. Its bottle, designed by Serge MANSAU, offers a glimpse of a poppy stem, the flower of which blooms in accordance with the three different sizes of the fragrance. It took perfumers Alberto MORILLAS and Christian DUSSOULIER a great deal of imagination to invent a scent for this flower, which has none of its own. The perfumers crafted a blend centred on notes of rose, vanilla, musk and violet, giving this ‘silent’ flower an imagined fragrance. Ever since, whenever we think of ‘the scent of a poppy’, we automatically think of Flower by KENZO – which was actually inspired by the scent of an old lipstick!
ANGEL (1992)
Created by perfumer Olivier CRESP, this first fragrance by the Alsatian fashion designer Thierry MUGLER (1948–2022) is inspired by the olfactory memories of the funfairs of his childhood. Angel pioneered the use, in its formulation, of a synthetic molecule with notes of caramel and praline, combined with a generous dose of patchouli essence. Its formula is concise: 25 ingredients. It took more than 600 trials to perfect this fragrance, which is still ranked among the world’s top 10 best-selling niche perfumes today.
From a marketing perspective, Angel was one of the first perfumes to become a brand in its own right and to practise relationship marketing: customers were invited to join its ‘circle’ of insiders, with small gifts sent to users’ homes as and when they made purchases, and packaging accompanied by a small card inviting them to share their expectations and needs with the brand, which replied to all correspondence.
The distinctive star-shaped bottle, a complex creation by the BROSSE glassworks, elevated this first ‘gourmand’ fragrance in the history of perfumery to the ranks of legendary perfumes, whose global success continues to this day. According to the CLARINS Group, Thierry MUGLER’s parent company until its sale to L’ORÉAL in 2019, one bottle was sold every 10 seconds worldwide in 2011.
Whilst the MUGLER brand did not actually invent the concept of ‘refillable’ perfume – which originated during times of war and rationing when glassware was in short supply – it has brought back into fashion the economical and environmentally friendly idea of refilling one’s perfume at the ‘Source’, following the example of the ‘perfume fountains’ that CARON has been offering in its Parisian boutique since 1982.
Angel has spawned a vast number of ‘flankers’ – adaptations of the original fragrance and bottle – based on a variety of themes and created in partnership with leading artists, each one a work of art highly prized by collectors worldwide.
CK ONE (1994)
Created by perfumers Alberto MORILLAS and Harry FREMONT, CK One marked the blurring of the lines between men’s and women’s fashion in 1994.
With androgynous silhouettes and identical clothing, it became the symbol of an entire generation that marketing had ushered into the dawn of the era of ‘unisex’ fragrances – minimalist and refined.
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The 21st Century
Reflecting our insatiable consumer society and our fast-paced world, the 21st century is characterised by the intense commercialisation of fragrances of all kinds.
With figurative bottles conveying powerful messages, new olfactory experiences offered to customers, and ever more impactful marketing – particularly on social media and amongst young consumers – perfume is available in every theme and to suit every taste. Whilst 200 perfumes were launched in 1980, followed by 280 in 1990 and 700 in 2000, we are now approaching 7,000 launches a year! A single perfume name could sum up the situation on its own: Decadence (Marc Jacobs).
There are many trends: the proliferation of gourmand, sweet and nostalgic fragrances; the boom in niche perfumery; and the rise of ‘dupes’ – these low-cost, more or less successful copies of major fragrances whose formulas are still not protected by law: perfume is a real business, especially if it bears the ‘Made in France’ label.
Everything is being scented, yet paradoxically we also want to control odours we don’t like: scented bin bags, anti-odour products for the fridge, pet fragrances, deodorants for the whole body…
‘Conceptual’ perfumes are springing up, for better or for worse: fragrances that smell of Play-Doh modelling clay, the interior of a new car; that smell of cleanliness or, reassuringly, of cat hair; perfumes created from your DNA or in capsule form to be swallowed so they’re released through sweat; Pizza Hut or KFC-scented perfumes, and perfumes made from recycled raw materials: you name it, it exists!
The perfume industry is constantly reinventing itself, developing new ingredients, implementing ‘greener’ manufacturing processes and adapting to strict regulations to offer greater safety to consumers.
Perfumers are competing to come up with the most creative ideas for the trends of tomorrow or those set to make a comeback, such as ‘vintage’ fragrances, which are currently all the rage and attracting a large following because they are associated with meaningful stories and values.
Finally, the 21st century has also seen a growing awareness of the importance of the sense of smell – a sense that has long been overlooked, as people failed to realise its impact at the very heart of our lives and in our relationships with others. Perfume is now widely celebrated in the worlds of art and culture, helping to bring even more immersive and intense sensory experiences to the general public.
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AMEROY
In the post-war years, the AMEROY perfumery, based first at Fond de Givonne and later in Torcy, in the Ardennes, produced a fragrance that was very popular amongst the people of Sedan: *Arôme de la Forêt des Ardennes*. A cologne enriched with a note of freshly cut grass, created by the perfumer and founder of the brand, Henri Facquier, who was succeeded by Nicolas Tonnaeff.
In the 1980s, Daniel Grandjean, a novelist from Sedan, attempted to bring this Cologne back into fashion. Together with the team at the social organisation he heads, he took over the AMEROY perfumery… and its formulas. ‘Jonquilles de Gérardmer’ and ‘Cuir de Russie’ were added to the range.
But success was slow in coming; competition from the big names in the perfume industry left little room for AMEROY fragrances, which disappeared just a few years after their revival.
Marcel FRANCK
In 1907, Marcel FRANCK took over from his father Léopold, who had been designing perfume atomisers since 1882. He collaborated with the crystal-makers at Baccarat and Saint-Louis, as well as renowned glass artists such as Lalique, Gallé and Argy-Rousseau. He registered several patents for his frames and gained an international reputation.
In 2012, Bernard DENNERY, Marcel FRANCK’s grandson, took over the company, which continues to sell high-quality perfume atomisers.
In 1907, Marcel FRANCK took over from his father Léopold, who had been designing perfume atomisers since 1882. He collaborated with the crystal-makers at Baccarat and Saint-Louis, as well as renowned glass artists such as Lalique, Gallé and Argy-Rousseau. He registered several patents for his frames and gained an international reputation.
In 2012, Bernard DENNERY, Marcel FRANCK’s grandson, took over the company, which continues to sell high-quality perfume atomisers.
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The Bottle
The bottle is to perfume what the body is to the soul: it gives form to the invisible.
A true work of art—often sculptural in nature—the fragrance, which is initially immaterial, only acquires its true identity in the eyes of the general public at the precise moment when the bottle becomes its setting, its garment of light, the embodiment of its image and the story the fragrance will tell.
Pierre DINAND
Nicknamed ‘The Man of 1,000 Bottles’, Pierre DINAND is one of the greatest designers in the perfume industry. Born in Paris in 1931, he trained at the École Nationale des Beaux-Arts in Paris and founded his own design agency, ‘Ateliers Dinand’, in 1968. From ‘Femme’ by ROCHAS to the ‘Inrô’ bottle for ‘Opium’ by Yves SAINT-LAURENT, via ‘Calandre’ by Paco RABANNE, the artist has created an incredible array of world-famous perfume bottle designs.
Serge MANSAU (1930 – 2019)
Nicknamed ‘the man with 250 bottles’, this artist created, from 1960 onwards and for over fifty years, perfume bottles that are true works of art for the greatest French fashion houses: Dior, Givenchy, Guerlain and Hermès. He also collaborated with all the major crystal manufacturers: Saint Louis, Daum and Murano. Nearly 300 previously unseen pieces and sculptures were auctioned by Isabelle Goxe at the Enghien-les-Bains Auction House, originating from his studio in Thivernal, in the Yvelines.
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Einige bedeutende Parfümeure
Edmond ROUDNITSKA: (1905–1996)
Edmond ROUDNITSKA was a true ‘artist of perfume’. As much a theorist as a creator, he championed throughout his life the idea that perfumery should be elevated to the status of an art form, on a par with music, painting and literature. ‘To create new compositions, new olfactory forms, all you need to do is think “in scents”, just as a painter thinks “in colours” and a musician “in sounds”…’
His vision of the importance of aesthetics in perfumery lies at the heart of his remarkable creations – concise, precise, subtle, perfectly balanced and evocative of purity and transparency – such as Diorissimo for DIOR in 1956, a marvellous tribute to the scent of lily of the valley, or Eau Sauvage for DIOR in 1966, to name but a few.
This perfumer also attached great importance to the emotions that a fragrance can evoke. In 1946, he founded his own independent laboratory, ‘Art et Parfum’. His many masterpieces, such as Femme (ROCHAS), have become timeless classics and continue to resonate with people of all generations to this day.
‘A fine perfume is one that gives us a “shock”; a sensory shock that stirs our emotions at first encounter, certainly, but followed by a psychological shock that is all the more lasting as the perfume unfolds its character gradually, as it slowly evaporates, gradually revealing to us, if not its structure—which is generally not very apparent—then at least the details of its profile, so that, if this form is original, it will become etched in our minds, which will not forget it and will recognise it the very first time we encounter it again.” Edmond ROUDNITSKA (1905–1996) (L’Esthétique en question, 1978).
Germaine CELLIER: (1909–1976)
Born in Bordeaux in 1909, Germaine CELLIER profoundly revolutionised the conventions of modern perfumery through her non-conformist and avant-garde style, which paved the way for a more expressive and creative approach to perfumery.
A chemist by training, she joined ROURE in the 1930s, where her talent was quickly recognised. Independent and strong-willed, she made her mark in the world of perfumery – which was largely male-dominated at the time – thanks to her legendary boldness, which also characterised her formulations: concise, contrasting, powerful and often featuring a raw material used in excessive quantities.
She created several perfumes that have become iconic: Bandit for PIGUET in 1944, a great leather chypre, Vent Vert for BALMAIN in 1947, a modern ‘green’ fragrance, often regarded as the first of its kind due to its generous use of galbanum, and Fracas for PIGUET in 1948, one of the finest tuberose fragrances in the entire history of perfumery…
Her fragrances reflect her character: formulated with great intelligence.
This talented designer, a socialite in 1940s Paris, is still regarded today by the entire industry as a woman who succeeded in asserting her free spirit and outspokenness through creations that marked the dawn of an original and boldly daring era in perfumery.
Henri ALMÉRAS: (1892–1965)
Henri ALMÉRAS was a talented perfumer whose name is closely associated with the House of PATOU, for which he created a number of hugely successful fragrances, including Joy, which the brand described as ‘the world’s most expensive perfume’ due to its exceptional concentration of natural flowers.
Having become the house’s official perfumer in 1923, he also created for it Chaldée, Adieu sagesse, Colony, Invitation, L’h His elegant and refined olfactory style embodies the golden age of French haute perfumery. As early as 1914, he was chosen by the fashion designer and perfumer Paul POIRET to create certain fragrances for his brand, Les parfums de Rosine, such as Le fruit défendu (1918), which can still be experienced today at the Osmothèque in Versailles, and Arlequinade (1919).
His talent enabled him to collaborate with numerous other brands such as FRAGONARD, LUZY and D’ORSAY…eure attendue, Normandie, Que sais-je ? and many more besides.
Jean CARLES: (1892–1966)
This unconventional perfumer revolutionised the art of perfume creation by devising a training programme for trainee perfumers.
At a time when the trade was almost invariably passed down within the same family – and often within the Grasse community itself – Jean CARLES broke with established conventions to teach his craft to any young people who showed an interest and sought him out.
He was instrumental in the founding, in 1946, of the first French school of perfumery, the ROURE School – now known as the GIVAUDAN School – and was also one of the first to recognise the artistic dimension of perfume, which he considered almost more important than its scientific aspect. We owe him the famous ‘Olfactory Pyramid’, now familiar to the general public, and to which all contemporary brands refer when explaining to consumers the ‘top/heart/base’ structure of their perfumes: one almost forgets that this pyramid was, above all, a working tool that Jean CARLES developed for his students to teach them how to track, over time, the evolution of a perfume and the raw materials that make up its formula…
His methodology was developed to enable a precise, clear and systematic approach to learning the craft of perfumery. However, in December 1967, Jean CARLES told the magazine ‘Recherches’ No. 16: ‘Whilst it may be possible to establish a method enabling the apprentice perfumer to understand and acquire a certain technique, in perfumery, as in many other fields, there will be many who aspire to the craft but few who are truly chosen, for the essential qualities that lead to success cannot be learnt, nor can enthusiasm, the joy of living and creating, and a love of the craft. These qualities are innate, and without them, there can be no great perfumer.”
Born in 1892 in Grasse, Jean CARLES began his career as a perfumer and creator at ROURE BERTRAND Fils & Justin DUPONT in 1910. By the age of eighteen, he was already fluent in four foreign languages. Passionate about magic and jazz music, this pioneering and visionary perfumer had clients and friends all over the world. In Spain, he met Javier SERRA, founder of the DANA brand, who became his friend and for whom he created numerous fragrances, including the famous Tabu, centred on a carnation and patchouli accord which, it is said, greatly inspired the 1977 creation of Yves SAINT-LAURENT’s Opium, also manufactured by ROURE…
Mobilised in 1914 to serve on the Verdun front as an interpreter, Jean CARLES never fully recovered from this period, despite his legendary optimism.
Known as ‘Mister Nose’ due to his immense talent, he won several industry awards, both in France and the USA, and trained numerous perfumers who went on to become legends in their own right, such as Jacques POLGE, Michel HY and Monique SCHLIENGER…
His numerous creations still resonate in the minds of connoisseurs: Canoé (DANA), Miss Dior (DIOR), formulated with Paul VACHER; Emir (DANA), Ma griffe (CARVEN) – for which he explained he had drawn inspiration from the formula for Crêpe de Chine (F. MILLOT); Visa (PIGUET), Shocking (SCHIAPARELLI) and all the fragrances from the Lucien LELONG brand…
A visionary perfumer and a pioneering teacher in his field, Jean CARLES remains, even today, a guiding light for all seasoned perfumers and those yet to come
Jean KERLÉO: (1932–2025)
Born into a family of Breton farmers, Jean KERLÉO joined Helena RUBINSTEIN at the age of 23 as a formulator and was trained in-house as a perfumer by Jacques JANTZEN, whom he assisted for eight years, working on the development of the brand’s cosmetic fragrances.
n 1965, he was awarded the ‘Prix des Parfumeurs de France’, which undoubtedly contributed to his joining Jean PATOU two years later, following in the footsteps of perfumers Henri ALMÉRAS and Henri GIBOULET.
As the creator of the Lacoste eau de toilette, he went on to create, for PATOU, 1000, followed by Eau de Patou, Patou pour homme, Ma liberté, Sublime and Voyageur. He also reworked the original formulas for ‘Vacances’ and ‘Chaldée’, as well as other PATOU fragrances that were no longer on the market. He remained a perfumer-creator and technical director at PATOU until 1999.
We owe the founding of the Osmothèque de Versailles in 1990 to this man of great discretion; this international perfume museum, the only one of its kind in the world, of which he served as president until 2008. Our entire profession agrees that this institution pioneered the preservation, safeguarding and promotion of our industry’s heritage.
On a more personal note, he did us the honour of writing the foreword to our book *F. MILLOT Parfumeur – From Eau Magique to Crêpe de Chine: A Family History*, published in 2017 by Le Pythagore, and of encouraging us to publish it…
His story, his exceptional career and the man he was have left a deep mark on many generations of perfumers and those in the fragrance industry, who will never forget him.
Jean-François LATTY: (1946–2019)
Born in Grasse, Jean-François LATTY joined the ROURE company at a very young age to study perfumery. He went on to work for its Parisian subsidiary and later its American subsidiary. From 1970 onwards, this perfumer practised his craft at IFF for 17 years. He then joined the Japanese company TAKASAGO, where he remained until 2000.
It was at this point that he became an independent perfumer and set up his own company, ‘JFL Créations’, specialising in the creation of perfumes and the trading of raw materials.
At the same time, and until his death in 2019, he was the resident perfumer at the niche perfume house Téo CABANEL.
Throughout his life, Jean-François LATTY created thousands of fragrances. Among his most famous creations are: Givenchy 3 (GIVENCHY), in collaboration with Raymond CHAILLAN and Yolande JERROLD; Jazz (Yves SAINT-LAURENT); Eau Dynamisante (CLARINS); Roma (Laura BIAGIOTTI); and many others.
A man of exceptional humility, he is a creative genius who is passionate about his craft and truly generous. He is one of those rare great perfumers who felt a calling to pass on his art and knowledge to younger generations, and many of us were fortunate enough to learn the art of perfume composition under his guidance, both at the ‘Grasse Institute of Perfumery’ (GIP) and at ROBERTET’s in-house training school in Grasse, where he delivered extraordinary lessons.
Thanks to him, a few of us are now ‘passing on’ our knowledge in turn, and we shall continue to do so with conviction and passion, to honour his memory…
Yves TANGUY
Trained in Grasse by Raymond PELLEGRIN at the La Marigarde cooperative, Yves TANGUY joined the BOURJOIS-CHANEL group in 1966. There, he took charge of fragrance quality control and assisted the perfumer and chemist Henri ROBERT (1899–1987).
In 1979, following a spell with the American group POLAK’S FRUTAL WORKS – for which he set up offices in Paris – he joined the Grasse-based fragrance house MANE as a creative perfumer.
From 2001 onwards, he devoted his time and energy to working towards the preservation and promotion of the olfactory heritage of perfumery at the Osmothèque de Versailles, the International Conservatoire of Perfumes, of which he was a co-founder and vice-president for over ten years.
A true teacher, he passed on the art of perfume composition to students at two French schools of perfumery: ISIPCA (Versailles) and the École Supérieure du Parfum et de la Cosmétique (Paris).
Her creations were luminous, elegant and refined, just like her.
In 1990, she was responsible for, amongst other things, ‘New West for her’ (ARAMIS), the first ‘marine’ fragrance for women (evoking the salty scent of the sea), thanks to the use of ‘calone 51’, a molecule discovered in 1966 which he was the first to ‘master’ in order to share its unique olfactory qualities with the general public.
Whilst Jicky (GUERLAIN), composed in 1889 by the perfumer Aimé GUERLAIN, was his greatest olfactory favourite – and he would have loved to have created ‘such a perfect fragrance’ himself – Yves TANGUY nonetheless devised sumptuous fragrances, sometimes in collaboration with other perfumers, including: Escape (Calvin KLEIN), Magie noire (LANCÔME), Anne Klein II (Anne KLEIN), New West Desert Sensual Nectar (ARAMIS), Vison – Eau de toilette (Robert BEAULIEU), Intoxication d’amour (D’ORSAY)…
Joséphine CATAPANO: (1919–2012)
A former nurse, Joséphine Catapano – known as ‘Jo’ – was one of the leading figures in 20th-century American perfumery. She spent her entire career at IFF.
In 1953, she created Youth-Dew for Estée LAUDER. Initially launched on the American market as a scented bath oil, this creation contributed to the brand’s spectacular rise.
This same fragrance would later inspire Yves SAINT-LAURENT’s famous Opium.
Renowned for her perfectly balanced compositions inspired by nature, she created Zen for SHISEIDO in 1964, followed by Fidji for Guy LAROCHE in 1966, which she composed around the ‘green’ notes she loved so much and which blend perfectly with white flowers.
A talented perfumer, she is a member of the American Society of Perfumers and has received several awards, including, in 1993, the Lifetime Achievement Award from this professional association and the ‘Cosmetic Career Women’s’ award in 1980.
Grasse, the capital of perfume
In the 15th century, the tanning industry flourished in the Grasse region, its reputation extending beyond the borders of France. Grasse leather is renowned for its fineness and its greenish colour, which is due to maceration in myrtle, a tannin-rich plant native to Provence. Around 1560, jasmine imported from India was cultivated in vast fields. May roses, lavender and tuberose soon bloomed throughout the region.
In 1482, the incorporation of Provence into the French Crown helped to boost local leather production. Catherine de’ Medici was known for her excessive fondness for perfuming gloves to mask the smell of tanning. To meet the demand for these new leathers, Grasse then shifted its industry towards perfumery.
With the establishment of the Guild of Master Glove-Makers and Perfumers by Louis XIII in 1614, the profession experienced a resurgence of interest. The town of Grasse introduced a specific set of regulations as early as 1724, which encouraged the establishment of new factories.
In the 19th century, industrial production gradually replaced local craftsmanship. Large family-run factories emerged, some of which are still in operation today.
In 2018, the ‘perfume-making skills of the Grasse region’ were inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
There are three such skills: the cultivation of perfume plants, knowledge of natural raw materials and their processing, and the art of perfume composition.
The perfume houses of Grasse
It is difficult to provide an exhaustive list of all the Grasse-based perfume houses that contributed to the golden age of French perfumery.
Some are still in business today, whilst others are part of the collective memory and hold an important place in the history of perfumery:
TOMBAREL Frères, PÉLISSIER-ARAGON, ALZIARI, NOGARA, VARALDI, MURAOUR, GIRAUD Fils, MÉRO & BOYVEAU, ROURE – BERTRAND, HONORÉ PAYAN, etc.
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‘The Perfumer’
– Artist and lithographer: Frédéric BOUCHOT (born in 1798)
– Collection: Eugène CHARABOT
– Published in ‘French Perfumery and the Art of Presentation’ by the journal *Revue des marques de la parfumerie et de la savonnerie* (1925)
‘La parfumeuse’ is inspired by the *Costumes grotesques*, a series of prints published in the late 17th century. They are the work of a dynasty of Parisian engravers and print dealers (mid-17th to mid-18th century), led by Nicolas I de Larmessin, a merchant, publisher and book gilder until his death in 1683. These costumes were conceived by one of his two sons, Nicolas II de Larmessin, around 1691. The series was completed by his brother, Nicolas III de Larmessin, and his nephew, Nicolas IV de Larmessin. Linked to the history of the court of Louis XIV, they depict figures dressed in the regalia of their respective trades to represent them socially through their guilds.
Can you identify the items that make up ‘La parfumeuse’s’ outfit?
Perfume bottles, soaps, hairbrushes, sponges, powders, perfume filters, toothbrushes, powder puffs, shaving brushes, wooden barrels for storing alcoholic products, pots for make-up, pigments and cosmetics; toilet vinegars, raw materials, scented toothpicks…
Enfleurage frames
Used exclusively for delicate flowers (rose, tuberose, jasmine) that cannot withstand the heat of distillation, enfleurage is a process that involves saturating the fat with fragrant molecules before washing it with alcohol in tumbling drums.
The process takes several days. The flowers are replaced daily until the fat is saturated.
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Hygiene in the 19th century
The 19th century marked a significant turning point in the development of hygiene. Paris was rebuilt according to Baron Haussmann’s plans, featuring wide boulevards, comfortable buildings with heating and running water, and sewage systems. Life in the countryside remained more rudimentary, but standards of personal hygiene had improved considerably there thanks to efforts to combat epidemics, the advent of vaccines and education.
The Industrial Revolution was in full swing, driven by technological advances, the use of steam as a source of energy, the advent of electricity and the development of the railways.
Soap production, which until then had been concentrated mainly in Marseille and Nantes, saw factories springing up in Paris, using more modern saponification processes and high-performance machinery: automatic dryers, moulding machines, etc.
Between 1830 and 1850, the perfume industry was booming. Until then the poor relation of the luxury goods sector, it saw its turnover rise and the number of establishments increase significantly.
When one reads *César Birotteau*, written in 1837 by Honoré de Balzac and inspired by the Guerlain house, one realises the promising future that a perfumery merchant could look forward to.
Advertising came into play. Known at the time as ‘reclame’, it began to develop in the press as early as 1830.
Advertisements extolled the virtues of vinegars and toilet rums, ointments made from bear fat or beef marrow, cold creams, bandolines, progressive hair dyes, hand-whitening pastes, tooth powders and other iris lotions or soaps made from lettuce juice.
This revolution in the manufacture and trade of cosmetics and toiletries continued into the early 20th century. Although slowed by the wars, it continued to gain ground, bringing with each new era its own array of innovations designed to combat ageing, enhance the beauty of the hair, achieve a tanned complexion and, of course, leave a fragrant trail in one’s wake.
Oral hygiene began to develop in the 18th century, at the same time as mouthwashes and toothpastes first appeared.
The toothbrush made its debut at court during the reign of Louis XV, and Napoleon Bonaparte made it a compulsory item in soldiers’ kit.
Its commercialisation gained momentum during the 19th century, and its use became widespread in the early 20th century.
NIVÉA Cream
In 1911, Isaac LIFTSCHÜTZ’s discovery of Eucerit – which, by acting as an emulsifier, enabled the creation of a stable oil-in-water mixture – was to revolutionise the cosmetics industry.
Oscar TROPLOWITZ used it to create a skincare cream which he named Nivea. Derived from the Latin ‘nix, nivis’, meaning ‘snow’, the name refers to the cream’s whiteness.
Initially sold in chemists’ shops in a small yellow metal tin, it adopted its definitive packaging in 1920: a blue metal tin with its name in white lettering, which we still recognise today.
The range expanded to include suncare products in 1958, baby care products in 1963, and, in the 1980s, men’s grooming products.
Even today, the famous blue tin still takes pride of place in our bathrooms.
Simon Cream
Having noticed the poor condition of the washerwomen’s hands, Dr Joseph SIMON came up with the idea of creating his famous SIMON cream in 1860. It was a very simple formula, consisting of zinc oxide, water, starch, glycerine and perfume.
It was recommended that it be applied to damp skin and that any excess be wiped off.
Awarded a Gold Medal at the 1900 World’s Fair in Paris, it became one of the best-selling brands of the early 20th century, passed down from mother to daughter.
It was sold worldwide right up until the end of the 20th century.
Oriental Pills
Strange as it may seem, the world of perfumery is also linked to that of hygiene, science and beauty…
In this context, history has seen the emergence of numerous products, some of which – though surprising – deserve to be remembered, as they left such a mark on their era through their originality.
This is the case with ‘Oriental Pills’, sold in chemists…
In 1886, the chemist François BOISSON launched a new pharmaceutical product: the ‘Pilules Orientales’, designed to enhance the breasts. Sales began to take off from 1897 onwards, when the young chemist Jules RATIÉ took over the business. In partnership with the advertising executive Jules FORTIN, he expanded the market as far as America. It was a modest short article on the front page of issue No. 31 of *L’Art de la mode* from 1887 that promoted the product and laid the foundations for the initial success of these miracle pills: ‘A woman’s physical beauty, acquired or restored by Oriental Pills. The only ones that guarantee the development of the bust within two months without harming one’s health.”
Drug legislation (which became stricter around 1930) and competition from other products brought the venture to an end, even though these pills – which straddled the boundaries of ‘Science, Hygiene and Beauty’, as stated on the packaging – enjoyed great success right up until the Second World War. The product was subsequently marketed from 1960 onwards by Laboratoires ODILIA, whose museum displays a rare example. Sales ceased entirely in 1973. Cécile RAYNAL (pharmacist and member of the Société d’Histoire de la Pharmacie) and Thierry LEFEBVRE (senior lecturer at Paris-Diderot University) have published a brilliant book recounting its surprising history: *L’Épopée des Pilules Orientales* (Le Square Éditeur, 2018).
THO-RADIA Scientific Beauty Products
The discovery of radioactivity in uranium in 1896 by Henri BECQUEREL, confirmed by Marie CURIE’s research, was to revolutionise cancer treatment from the start of the 20th century. Radiation was used to destroy cancerous tumours or treat skin conditions. However, even at that time, researchers were warning of the harmful effects of radium on the body.
Yet ‘radium-based’ cosmetic products flooded the market as early as 1910: Activa, Radior, Ramey, Raduims Elys, Doramad, Brukbraun, Nutex – over a hundred trade names were registered up until 1934.
THO-RADIA, a trademark registered in 1932, produced creams, toothpastes and soaps containing radium, with regenerative and revitalising properties, as well as thorium, reputed to be even more effective against wrinkles.
Alexis MOUSSALLI, the inventor of this miracle cream, was a pharmacist. He went into partnership with Dr Alfred CURIE, who was not related to the scientists Pierre and Marie CURIE, but whose name alone lent the product added credibility.
The advert shows the face of a young blonde woman, illuminated by the radium contained in the open jar of cream at the base of her neck.
THO-RADIA products were sold exclusively in pharmacies, further enhancing their reputation.
In 1937, the use of radium for cosmetic purposes was finally banned.
The THO-RADIA brand altered the composition of its products and continued to operate until 1968.
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Make-up
The use of make-up dates back to antiquity. Women whitened their complexions with white lead, a toxic lead carbonate, as well as various mixtures of pastes and powders made from lime and bean flour.
In the Middle Ages, the practice spread to men. An alabaster complexion was synonymous with refinement, in contrast to the tanned faces of peasants working outdoors. By the end of the 16th century, it was not uncommon to see nuns or priests wearing make-up and with curled hair.
During the reign of Louis XIV, ‘blanc d’Espagne’ was used to achieve a porcelain-coloured complexion, and ‘rougé incarnadin’ for the cheeks. Lips were carmine red. Wigs were dusted with a fine layer of perfumed starch. Louis XV and Louis XVI continued this tradition. At court, men, women and children were expected to appear made-up and perfumed. During the Empire, Joséphine de Beauharnais used powders scented with vanilla, iris and exotic spices.
Towards the end of the 18th century, awareness grew of the harmful effects of lead white, and the Royal Society of Medicine encouraged the trend towards a more natural complexion.
During the 19th century, Venetian talc, Briançon chalk and starch powder were used to whiten the complexion. Rice powder, which had been used since ancient times in India and Japan for its mattifying properties and softness, replaced starch and talc by the end of the century.
Powder boxes
Under the Ancien Régime, powder boxes were true works of art, crafted from ivory, precious woods or Chinese lacquer. In Grasse, some boxes, decorated with extreme finesse, were lined with bergamot peel.
Powder was bought in cardboard boxes and then transferred to a powder compact made of wood, metal, glass, crystal or semi-precious stones, which took pride of place on the dressing table.
Over time, these cardboard boxes became increasingly elaborate and, by the early 20th century, had in turn become true works of art in their own right.
With the advent of compact powders, powder compacts underwent numerous changes. Make-up was presented in small metal or aluminium boxes, and later in plastic ones. The cases, adorned with small mirrors, contained powder, lipstick and blush, and served as decorative items on the dressing table or could be slipped into a handbag. They were true fashion accessories, and the various brands went to great lengths to come up with innovative designs.
Bakerfix
Display stand for Bakerfix Brillantiné, made famous by Josephine Baker in the 1930s.
Handcrafted by staff at the Folies Bergère’s dressmaking workshops, this unique piece was presented to Pascal PÉNARD on the occasion of his retirement in 1992.
Pascal PÉNARD spent his entire career at the Théâtre des Folies Bergère. A collector of objects associated with the venue, he also curated an exhibition there in 2012.
Hahn’s Petroleum for Hair by Charles HAHN and François VIBERT
Around 1885, Charles HAHN, a Genevan chemist, came across a medical publication describing how oil workers in Arkansas used petroleum to treat skin wounds. The same article also noted that these workers had increased hair growth.
Charles HAHN then developed a formula comprising petroleum and various essential oils, designed to ‘strengthen the scalp and make the hair supple, silky and voluminous’.
It was an instant success and very quickly spread beyond Switzerland’s borders.
François VUIBERT, a chemist in Lyon, sold the famous lotion in his shop. Charles HAHN then offered to give him the formula if he reached the target of 6,000 bottles sold. He achieved this in two years. François VUIBERT registered the trademark ‘Pétrole HAHN for hair’ in 1896 and manufactured the lotion in his own workshops. He very quickly conquered the international market thanks to a well-executed advertising campaign. His adopted son succeeded him at the helm of the company, which would change its address several times but would not alter the product’s formula, the instructions for which read as follows: ‘Applied to the scalp, followed by a kneading massage with vigorous pressure on the skull, it ensures the scalp remains clean and healthy, the source of life for the hair itself’.
Over the course of more than a hundred years, the famous rectangular bottle with its red label and Gallic rooster medallion, manufactured by the BROSSE glassworks, has become a household staple for thousands of people around the world.
The language of hairpins
It was Anne-Louise-Bénédicte de Bourbon-Condé, granddaughter of the Grand Condé and Duchess of Maine, who introduced the fashion for hairpins at court.
Black, made of taffeta, muslin, silk or velvet, each one has a specific name: ‘killer fly’ on the breast, ‘concealer’ when it hides a spot, ‘passionate’ if it sits at the corner of the eye, ‘gallant’ in the middle of the cheek, ‘cheeky’ when it’s stuck to the nose, ‘coquette’ when it settles at the corner of the lips, ‘majestic’ near the temples, ‘playful’ if it fills a dimple, or ‘kisser’ on the lips.
Worn by both men and women, it was not uncommon to count six or seven of them on certain faces and décolletés.
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Eau de Cologne first appeared in the 18th century.
It is said that a young Italian named FARINA was given a perfume formula by a monk, just before setting off to settle in Cologne, Germany. He is said to have marketed this perfume in 1709 under the name Aqua Mirabilis (Marvellous Water of Cologne), in homage to the city and its inhabitants who had given him such a warm welcome. This water, which would later come to be known as Eau de Cologne, was originally a maceration of citrus peel and aromatic herbs in a wine-based spirit and was considered more of a medicine than a perfume: it was said to cure numerous ailments and to be invigorating and revitalising.
The soldiers of Louis XV, passing through Cologne during the Seven Years’ War, discovered it and brought it back to the Court of Versailles to present it to the King – who was a hypochondriac – and his subjects, at a time when dry toiletries were the norm and hygiene was lacking. Everyone considered this water to be miraculous, capable of curing all ailments and preserving beauty.
In 1727, it was recognised as a ‘health-promoting product’ by the Cologne Academy of Medicine. A veritable panacea, it became the most popular universal hygiene and wellbeing product in the entire history of perfumery.
Napoleon, who was such a devotee that he used more than 60 bottles a month, had the Farina company – which had become his official supplier – create a bespoke bottle design that he could slip into his riding boots during his military campaigns!
Eau de Cologne, which was prescribed for rubbing onto the skin, adding to bathwater, sprinkling on a sugar cube, mixing with wine, using as a mouthwash, for foot baths, inhalations and enemas, is the only perfumery product to have been included in the Codex by decree of Napoleon I in 1810.
Its use has spanned the centuries: it has become a classic for the whole family, a bathroom essential. Fresh, clear, light, soothing, invigorating, refreshing, sparkling, tangy and energising thanks to the many citrus fruits in its formula, eau de Cologne marked the birth of modern perfumery in the service of hygiene, health and beauty. With the rise of mass retail, the 1960s helped to make it popular across all social classes. It has never stopped evolving and reinventing itself, and its success continues to this day.
Eau de Cologne
‘From Jean Marie Farina to Frédéric Malle, via Roger & Gallet, Hermès, Lubin, Chanel and even the popular Bien-Être and Mont St-Michel, cologne is both a classic and a timeless favourite. Whilst it has had its ups and downs, it has never disappeared from bathroom shelves, and has never ceased to evolve, transform and reinvent itself, whilst remaining true to its heritage. This, perhaps, is the reason for its success.”
Excerpt from mag.bynez.com by Nez La revue Olfactive, regarding the exhibition ‘The Fabulous History of Eau de Cologne’, which took place at the International Perfume Museum in Grasse (MIP) in 2019.
Beards and Shaving
Since time immemorial, men have been shaving and trimming their beards. A shell or a slightly sharp stone seemed to suffice in prehistoric times, but the procedure was always delicate and injuries were common. The profession of barber emerged in the West during the Middle Ages. Part surgeon and part dentist, the barber played an important social role at that time.
In the 18th century, men with a clean-shaven face were often people of a certain social standing.
With the publication in 1769 of Jean-Jacques PERRET’s manual entitled ‘La Pogonotomie, or the Art of Learning to Shave Oneself’, shaving became an art…
In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur’s germ theory reinforced the medical community’s view in favour of shaving. The Industrial Revolution was to bring about a major change in men’s daily lives, enabling them to purchase the items they needed for their personal grooming at home.
The straight razor, already in use in the 17th century, became more sophisticated and easier to handle.
Shaving creams were sold in all perfumeries. They were ‘sweetened with bitter almonds’, which neutralised the soap’s acidity and protected the skin.
The advent of the first safety razor, invented in 1903 by K. C. GILLETTE in the United States, was set to revolutionise shaving once again. Barbers’ shops gradually began to disappear.
The first electric razors went on sale as early as 1928. This marked the beginning of dry shaving, without soap.
And as fashions come and go, the early 21st century has seen a resurgence in men’s beards… and barbershops!
Mélanogène Dicquemare
Juste Amédée Dicquemare, a hairdresser in Rouen, developed a hair dye called ‘Mélanogène’ to conceal his clients’ grey hair. In January 1859, the Paris Society of Industrial Sciences, Arts and Literature awarded him a bronze medal, with the following citation: ‘The constant aim of Mr Dicquemare’s research and work has been to find a product for dyeing hair that is easy to use, perfectly effective and which, far from being harmful, nourishes the hair – in short, a product that is absolutely hygienic.’ ‘No more grey hair’ was the simple headline of the advertisements for Dicquemare Aîné’s Mélanogène, which appeared in abundance in the French and foreign press.
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Fashion designers and perfumers
By the early 20th century, French perfumery had gained an international reputation. Bourjois, Caron, Coty, Guerlain, Houbigant, F. Millot, L. T. Piver, Oriza L. Legrand and Roger & Gallet dominated the market, cementing their reputation and fortune.
In 1911, Paul Poiret – who had revolutionised fashion by freeing women from their corsets as early as 1906 – ventured into the world of perfumery by creating ‘Les Parfums de Rosine’. He came up with the idea of pairing each of his collections with a perfume and convinced his female clients that his fragrances were the essential finishing touch to bring out the best in his clothes.
It was not until 1921 that Gabriel Chanel truly broke into the market with her N°5: the union of haute couture and perfumery was then definitively sealed.
Other fashion designers followed suit: Charles Frederik Worth with *Dans la Nuit* in 1924; Jean Patou’s *Amour-Amour*, *Que Sais-je* and *Adieu Sagesse* in 1925; Jeanne Lanvin’s *My Sin* in the same year; ‘S’ by Elsa Schiaparelli in 1929; ‘Audace’, ‘Air Jeune’ and ‘Avenue Matignon’ by Marcel Rochas in 1936; ‘L’Indiscret’ by Lucien Lelong in 1937; then ‘Miss Dior’ by Christian Dior in 1947; ‘L’Interdit’ by Hubert de Givenchy in 1957 was a tribute to the actress Audrey Hepburn.
Of course, fashion designers did not become perfume creators themselves. They work with perfume houses, independent creators or have their own in-house perfumer.
Closer to home, we might also mention: Sonia Rykiel, Jean-Paul Gaultier, Paco Rabanne, Vivienne Westwood, Karl Lagerfeld, Christian Lacroix, Issey Miyake, John Galliano, Emmanuel Ungaro, Loris Azzaro, Alix Grès, André Courrèges, Popy Moreni, Jean Berthet, Cristóbal Balenciaga, Claude Montana, Pierre Balmain, Yves Saint Laurent, and the list goes on…
By the end of the 20th century, almost all fashion designers were marketing their own branded perfumes.
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Jewellers and perfumers
Whilst Paul POIRET was the first to combine perfume with his haute couture creations, paving the way for many other fashion designers, it was not until sixty-five years later that VAN CLEEF & ARPELS, renowned for its fine jewellery since the early 20th century, began pairing perfume with jewellery to enhance its exquisite sets.
However, this combination of perfume and jewellery remained relatively limited until the early 1980s.
It was then that houses such as CHOPARD and CARTIER entered this niche market in 1986, followed by BOUCHERON two years later. MAUBOUSSIN joined the ranks in 2000 with ‘Mauboussin pour femme’, created by Christine NAGEL, before launching ‘Le Secret d’Arielle’ for its customers in 2015, the culmination of a long-standing collaboration with the star Arielle DOMBASLE.
The bottles are inspired by the most precious jewels, as well as the diamonds, pearls and semi-precious stones that adorn them.
The ‘UFOs’ of the perfume world
At once unclassifiable, retro or futuristic, improbable and surreal, these ‘UFO’ fragrances defy the conventions of traditional perfumery and, since the 2000s, have appealed to lovers of unconventional fragrances who wish to make a lasting impression with a scent that is hard to pin down.
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Animals:
Our pets are sometimes the target of bold marketing campaigns. Should they, to please us, adopt our smells and scents?
Oh my Dog by DOG GENERATION was launched in May 2000 by Etienne de SWARDT, founder of the designer fragrance house (I dare not say ‘niche’, although that would certainly be apt here!) ÉTAT LIBRE D’ORANGE, and Laurent JUGEAU. Their selling point: ‘the first fragrance designed for the most sensitive noses’…
The recommended method: ‘Spray into the palm of your hand, then stroke the dog’ or ‘Spray onto a brush before grooming the dog’. Or, for the Oh my Cat! version: ‘Spray onto a soft cloth, then gently stroke your cat’s back and flanks with it’.
Other brands – no doubt sensing a profit to be made – have not hesitated to jump on this scent-driven bandwagon.
For several years now, Hermès has been selling – albeit without much fanfare – a natural dog shampoo, scented by Christine Nagel, the house’s ‘nose’.
In 2024, Dolce & Gabbana launched Fefé, an eau de toilette approved by a canine jury (!) with a compelling argument: ‘We wanted the owner, too, as part of a symbiotic relationship, to want to wear their pet’s scent’.
From animal-shaped bottles, such as those produced by AVON in the late 20th century or by LIF in the 1960s, to those with amusing labels bearing the names of the famous dog ‘Mirza’ and the ‘Little Cat’, there are also perfumes and scented products that evoke animals but are, thankfully, not intended for them – for whom preserving their natural scents is so vital…
The kinds
When it comes to perfume, just as with clothes or toys, children are an easy target for marketers, and all parents know this only too well.
A little gift here, a small treat there – the key challenge for brands is to win over the parents first.
Temptation is everywhere: in everyday life, leisure activities and family celebrations.
And there’s a vast array to choose from: fragrances linked to clothing and footwear brands; fragrances featuring characters from their favourite cartoons, comics, dolls, unicorns and other favourite toys. And the list goes on…
We’ve rounded up some of these bottles for you, which should bring back a few childhood memories, whatever your age.
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Music and Perfume
Their shared language has always united perfumers and musicians: they work through scales, tweak notes, refine chords, craft their compositions on the organ, and create harmonies.
Septimus Piesse (1820–1882), the famous English perfumer, pioneered an olfactory scale. ‘There is, so to speak, an octave of scents, just as there is an octave of notes; certain fragrances blend together like the sounds of an instrument,’ he wrote in *The Art of Perfumery*, his book published in 1856.
Just like fashion designers, classical musicians and singers from all walks of life are creating their own signature fragrances.
To stand out from the crowd? To earn some extra income? Or simply out of personal taste or passion…
The ‘classics’ include Arpège (1927) by Jeanne Lanvin, Récital (1931) by F. Millot; Sonate, Cantate, Concerto and even Nocturnes (1981) by Caron; and Mi, Sol, Si by Triolet de Sergy in the 1940s.
Many singers have launched – or continue to launch – one or more perfumes bearing their name: for Johnny Hallyday, the perfumes are named after his hit songs; for Claude François, it is *L’Eau Noire*; Michael Jackson’s *Légende* features a holographic portrait of him on the bottle; Elvis Presley is still *The King*.
Some contemporary singers have had very brief ‘fragrance careers’ that have left only fleeting memories, except perhaps for collectors…
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Literature and perfume
As the art amongst the arts, literature is also a source of inspiration for perfumers.
From COTY’s ‘Ex’cla ma’tion’ to LANCÔME’s ‘Poême’, from Victor VAISSIER’s ‘Savon des Immortels’ to Anaïs BIGUINE’s ‘Jardins d’Ecrivains’ candles, perfumers excel in the art of telling olfactory stories.
Literature, poetry and perfumes offer us a wonderful creative collaboration…
The nobility
The lives of royalty have always aroused curiosity, admiration or simply respect.
We love to learn about their personalities, their tastes, and their joys and sorrows.
The name of a princess, lent to a perfume, is sometimes enough to ensure its success, without the need for a major advertising campaign.
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A sculpture based on a drawing by Salvador DALI, shortly after he had painted his picture ‘The Apparition of the Face of Aphrodite of Cnidus in a Landscape’ in 1981.
The original statue of Aphrodite, erected in the city of Cnidus, was created by the Greek sculptor Praxiteles around 400–326 BCE.
Niki de Saint-Phalle and First Edition by NIKI DE SAINT-PHALLE (1930–2002)
1982
The proceeds from this perfume are used to fund the ‘Jardin des Tarots’ in Garavicchio, Tuscany.
“I had this dream of building a huge garden of sculptures, but these days there are no longer any great patrons. So I thought to myself: Why not be my own patron? I therefore created a sculpture for a mass-produced perfume. I am funding the garden with the money I earn from the perfume” – Niki de Saint-Phalle
‘Promenade à Auvers’ scented candle
An educational project carried out by students at the École Supérieure du Parfum de Paris – ‘Jasmin 2017’ cohort.
On the lid is a reproduction of the church at Auvers-sur-Oise, painted by Van Gogh in 1890 and on display at the Musée d’Orsay in Paris.
‘Painting scents, smelling colours’
Dance
The performing arts are closely linked to perfumes.
Dance, for example, is, like perfume, a truly universal language, an expression of both the body and the soul. This art of movement possesses an almost mystical dimension capable of connecting those who dance to the order of the world, and indeed to the divine…
It also has its own smells.
Body odours linked to exertion, to pushing oneself beyond one’s limits, to a performance well done; the smell of a deodorant that may be effective or prove useless, depending on who is wearing it; the smell of a wooden floor on which a dance routine takes shape; the smell of the leather in a dance shoe; the mingled scents of turpentine and pine so characteristic of rosin crushed between the floor and the tips of the ballet shoes to prevent slipping and falling; the scent of incense that accompanies the movements of oriental dancers; the scent of costumes; the scent of a stage heating up under the intense light of the spotlights and the warmth of the audience; the smell of stage fright; the smell of hairspray holding the hairstyle in place; the smell of stage make-up, lipstick and rice powder; the smells of an orchestra’s musical instruments, ranging from wood to metal…
Everything in the world of dance, just like in other performing arts, is all about the senses: every opera and every ballet has its own sets, its own colours and its own atmospheres, inviting the audience on a journey and an escape, and linking all of this to scents and fragrances.
Some brands have drawn inspiration from these elements to create fragrances, some of which no longer exist today, even though they enjoyed a degree of success in their day. With their evocative bottle shapes and suggestive names, many of them make a direct reference to the freedom of body and mind.
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Repurposed objects:
When our everyday lives inspire perfumers and designers, unusual bottles take pride of place in our bathrooms or find a spot in our display cabinets.
Today, they are collector’s items – sometimes extremely rare, but always a feast for the eyes.
Often the result of technical feats, they certainly do not go unnoticed, and certain brands – AVON in particular, the American brand founded in 1886 – have made them their hallmark.
Royal Bain de Champagne by CARON
1923
According to legend, a Californian billionaire asked Ernest DALTROFF, perfumer and founder of the CARON brand, to create a fragrance for him to replace the champagne – which was too expensive – that he used to pour into his bath.
Renamed Royal Bain in 1996, following the high-profile lawsuit brought by Champagne winegrowers against Yves SAINT-LAURENT upon the launch of his fragrance named ‘Champagne’, it is still sold in the same bottle featuring a small wine bottle, with the same label.
Champagne by Yves SAINT-LAURENT
‘For women who are happy, carefree and full of sparkle’
1993
The bottle is shaped like a Champagne cork, topped with its capsule and fitted with a metal wire cage.
The Champagne Wine Inter-Professional Committee is taking legal action against Yves SAINT-LAURENT, as the ‘Champagne’ designation is protected by an AOC.
What better way to boost sales of a wonderful perfume – one we are convinced is about to disappear – than a high-profile legal battle?
SAINT-LAURENT was forced to rename its perfume… but not to change the bottle, on which the name was initially crossed out with a stroke of lipstick, leaving only the fashion designer’s name, before being renamed Yvresse in 1996.
However, the ban did not apply abroad…
Alfred de Musset is said to have concluded: ‘What does the bottle matter, so long as we have the intoxication’…
The game
Some vintage perfumes bear names that evoke the world of gambling, cards and chance. Through these references, they suggest the idea of luck, fate and the hope of victory.
These names thus reflect the timeless appeal of the uncertainty of winning, where fortune may smile… or slip away.
Orientalism
A Western cultural movement, Orientalism emerged in Europe in the 18th century and flourished in the 19th century, influenced by the political upheavals linked to colonialism and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
It helped to shape a collective imagination of the East through the arts, literature and, in particular, painting.
Africanism, which emerged somewhat later, did not appear until the 19th century, and was itself influenced by European colonialism.
At the start of the 20th century, the perfume industry experienced an undeniable craze for all things Oriental and African. These influences can be seen not only in the evocative names of the fragrances, but also in the design of the bottles, gift sets and advertisements, which incorporated architectural, floral, sartorial and ornamental elements.
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Addictions:
These fragrances are called Poison, Opium, Cocaina, Loverdose… names which, since 1977, have referred to ‘Toxicommunication’ – the art of communicating through suggestive, addictive and transgressive fragrances that hint at dependency.
Since the 2000s, perfumers have taken this concept even further by incorporating raw materials into their formulas which, when blended together, evoke ‘a flirtation with a forbidden herb’ (Smoke for the Soul – BY KILIAN, composed by Fabrice PELLEGRIN); ‘a fragrance for relaxation addicts ’ (Haze – AKRO, composed by Olivier CRESP) – two ‘cannabis-scented’ fragrances –; ‘a fragrance that evokes the finest quality hashish, designed to awaken the effects of fleeting bliss’ (Black Afgano – NASOMATTO); or Tuscan Leather (Tom FORD), whose scent is said to evoke a line of cocaine…
Somewhere between provocation and the notion of addiction – yet with no harmful effects on health – this is a theme in perfumery which, like many others, draws inspiration from significant social issues.
Travel
Commemorating the launch of a cruise ship, given out by shipping companies to welcome their passengers, or simply bearing names evocative enough to conjure up images of escape, a change of scenery and dreams of faraway places, these fragrances sometimes inspire a journey or help to preserve the memory of one…
Titanic
Adolphe SAALFELD, a British perfumer, survived the sinking of the TITANIC during its maiden voyage on 14 April 1912
In 2000, an expedition was led by RMS Titanic Inc. in collaboration with the Russian Oceanographic Institute, the P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology. The teams carried out 28 dives aboard the submarines Mir-1 and Mir-2, recovering more than 900 objects, including a satchel containing around sixty vials belonging to Adolphe SAALFELD.
Two perfumes were created using these essences: Night Star by David PYBUS in 2009 and Legacy 1912
by RMS Titanic Inc. in 2012 to mark the centenary of the sinking.
Document published in the exhibition catalogue
The Queen Mary
A rare perfume bottle produced in 1936 to mark the maiden voyage of the British transatlantic liner ‘Queen Mary’ of the CUNARD LINE, nicknamed ‘Old Lady’.
Commissioned in 1929, it was built in Scotland and named after Queen Mary of Teck (1867–1953), Queen Consort of the United Kingdom and Empress of India during the reign of her husband, George V.
Heather Bouquet (Heather Bouquet): in Scotland, this flower is traditionally associated with protection and happiness.
Esotericism
In its modern sense, esotericism is defined as anything relating to the paranormal and lying outside the realm of scientific inquiry: astrology, cartomancy, palmistry, oracles, black magic, the occult and predictions of all kinds.
Its meaning varies somewhat depending on the era and the author, and it is sometimes used to describe strange and secret schools of thought in popular culture. Its teachings are, for the most part, the preserve of the initiated.
Perfumers are riding the wave of the irrational to give their fragrances evocative, captivating or bewitching names, promising mystery and secret passions…
Perfume in politics
Perfume is a social medium with limitless potential. It can be used to convey messages of all kinds, as we have seen in the various themes presented here.
In politics, as in all areas of society, it can convey an electoral message, a school of thought, or convey ideas and information.
The objects and bottles in this museum do not reflect any particular trend, nor do they convey any message: they are simply the result of our finds on the collectors’ and second-hand markets.
Religions
Although modern niche perfumery rarely touches upon the ‘religious’ sphere – as it is a controversial subject – it prefers to allude to it subtly through symbols and themes derived from it: angels, demons, miracles, eternity, worship, the seven deadly sins…
Some niche perfume brands take a more liberal approach to the subject through a select few fragrances from their collections (Serge Lutens, Kilian Paris, Liquides imaginaires…) and focus more on the notion of spirituality – one that is more personal, emotional and mystical (Oriza L. Legrand, Filippo Sorcinelli, Chapel Factory…).
In their perfumes, they use ingredients common to all religions, whose olfactory language is universal: frankincense, myrrh, benzoin, musk, sandalwood, sage…
Your visit is coming to an end…
We shall not offer an ‘Epilogue’ (Coryse SALOMÉ, 1946) or a lengthy speech here.
We simply hope, by way of ‘Conclusion’ (PLASSARD, 1930), that you will never again look at a bottle or choose your perfume in the same way in the ‘Future’ (Robert PIGUET, 1967).
We are delighted to say ‘See you soon’ (LENTHERIC, 1939) to you, in anticipation of further cultural and fragrant ‘Rendez-Vous’ (FRAGONARD, 1960s).
Sharing (FABERGÉ, 1979) our knowledge of perfume is our guiding principle, and we hope we have brought you a little happiness and a touch of fantasy, as well as some little-known anecdotes.
Please do feel free to come and discover our perfume-creation workshop too: make the most of our expertise to help you compose your own Ideal Perfume (HOUBIGANT, 1896).
Thank you for your trust.
Continue your tour of the Museum of Perfume Curiosities by listening to a
music playlist curated especially for you, featuring music and songs from around the world, in all styles and from all eras, relating to perfumes, flowers, scents and the museum’s themes.
